Medicine of the Future: On the Way to Immortality

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{html} <article> <header> <p class="byline">An expanded, source-verified deep dive based on the original article by <strong>Taubuzar Akerke Berikkyzy</strong>, South Kazakhstan Medical Academy, Shymkent (published 28 February 2025, Zenodo, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.14947399).</p> <p class="abstract"><strong>Summary:</strong> The original essay argued that the medicine of the future — from artificial blood and lab-grown organs to nanorobots — is gradually transforming the ancient dream of immortality into an engineering problem. In this expanded companion piece, each claim of the original is unpacked with the underlying science, the real research groups behind it, the most recent clinical-stage results, and the ethical and economic friction that decides whether a breakthrough ever leaves the laboratory. The result is a more honest map of where the science actually stands in 2025 — and what a regular person can usefully do today.</p> </header> <h2>1. Introduction: Why the "immortality" question keeps coming back</h2> <p>The question of how to avoid death has haunted humanity for ages. While acknowledging that life has an end, people often struggle to accept this reality. Throughout history, attempts were made to defy death through rituals and magic — from the Egyptian mummification cult to the Chinese Emperor Qin Shi Huang's fabled elixir of life, which likely poisoned him with mercury. What changes today is not the wish, but the toolbox.</p> <p>The modern concept of <strong>biohacking</strong> offers a path towards immortality by leveraging advancements in technology and biology. Biohacking is not only focused on making the body immortal but also holds a belief that manipulating the body or inserting special objects can fundamentally alter it — pacemakers, cochlear implants, continuous-glucose monitors and subcutaneous hormone pellets are already mainstream examples of this once-radical idea. However, achieving immortality or halting the aging process has always seemed unattainable, with the goal shifting towards increasing <em>healthspan</em> — the years lived in good function — rather than lifespan alone.</p> <p>The rapid progress in fields like biophysics, robotics, gene editing and artificial intelligence has rekindled the pursuit of extended life, offering new hope. The map is now legible enough that, in 2013, López-Otín and colleagues enumerated <strong>nine "hallmarks of aging"</strong> (later expanded to twelve in 2023) — a checklist of biological failures that, if reversed, would in theory halt or reverse aging. Each of the technologies in the original essay addresses one or more of these hallmarks. That is the framework we will use throughout this article.</p> <h2>2. The Hallmarks of Aging: a checklist immortality engineers actually use</h2> <p>In a landmark <em>Cell</em> review (2013), Carlos López-Otín and collaborators proposed that mammalian aging is driven by a finite set of biological processes: <strong>genomic instability, telomere attrition, epigenetic alterations, loss of proteostasis, deregulated nutrient sensing, mitochondrial dysfunction, cellular senescence, stem cell exhaustion, and altered intercellular communication.</strong> A 2023 update added three more: <strong>chronic inflammation, disabled macroautophagy, and dysbiosis</strong>. Every "medicine of the future" discussed below is, in effect, an attempt to repair one of these hallmarks.</p> <p>Knowing the hallmarks turns "immortality" from a mystical ambition into a project list. <em>Senolytics</em> attack cellular senescence. <em>Telomerase activators</em> attack telomere attrition. <em>Yamanaka-factor reprogramming</em> attacks epigenetic alterations. <em>Nanorobots</em> attack the consequences of genomic instability (cancer). <em>Artificial blood</em> and <em>lab-grown organs</em> address stem cell exhaustion and the cumulative wear that hallmarks eventually cause. This is why progress is accelerating: the targets are now concrete, measurable, and — critically — fundable.</p> <h2>3. Artificial Blood: from Russian Perftoran to ErythroMer</h2> <p>Scientists have made significant advancements in creating artificial blood, which could potentially solve the problem of blood shortages and the need for specific blood types. The original article framed this as a near-future possibility; in reality, the science is further along than most people realise — and further from widespread clinical use than the headlines suggest.</p> <p>According to a 2025 narrative review in <em>Blood Science</em>, the field of <strong>artificial oxygen carriers (AOCs)</strong> already has commercialised products. <strong>Perftoran</strong>, a perfluorocarbon-based emulsion, has been approved in Russia, Kazakhstan, Ukraine, the Kyrgyz Republic and Mexico, and has been administered to more than 35,000 patients. <strong>Hemopure</strong>, a haemoglobin-based oxygen carrier derived from bovine blood, has clinical-use approval in South Africa and Russia, and received expanded-access approval from the US FDA. The unmet need is real: blood donation is shrinking in most high-income countries, donated red cells last only ~42 days, and demand for transfusion keeps rising.</p> <p>The current poster child for next-generation artificial blood is <strong>ErythroMer</strong>, developed by KaloCyte (a US biotech). It is a freeze-dried, bio-inspired artificial red blood cell that can be stockpiled for years and reconstituted with water at the point of care — a potential game-changer for battlefield medicine, rural clinics and mass-casualty events. In July 2025, an NPR report confirmed that ErythroMer had been successfully tested in animals for life-threatening haemorrhage and that human trials were being positioned to begin. A 2025 <em>Blood Science</em> review further notes that ErythroMer "successfully tested a blood substitute in animals, and human trials may not be far off."</p> <p>The remaining obstacles are the ones that have dogged the field for 40 years: AOCs only carry oxygen, they do not replace the clotting factors, immune proteins and platelets of whole blood, and haemoglobin-based carriers historically raised blood pressure and cardiac events in trials. <em>Industrial scale-up</em> is genuinely possible — but the first commercial "universal" product is still a few years away.</p> <h2>4. Lab-Grown Organs: the 2014 Lancet study that proved it works in humans</h2> <p>The original article mentioned that "scientists have successfully created artificial sexual organs using genetic material, offering hope to women with underdeveloped reproductive systems." This is a real, peer-reviewed result, not a prediction — and it deserves to be cited properly because the long-term follow-up is what makes it impressive.</p> <p>On 10 April 2014, a Wake Forest Baptist Medical Center team led by Dr. <strong>Anthony Atala</strong> published a paper in <em>The Lancet</em> describing the long-term success of laboratory-grown vaginas implanted in four teenage girls (aged 13–18) with Mayer-Rokitansky-Küster-Hauser syndrome — a congenital condition in which the vagina and uterus are underdeveloped or absent. The team took a small biopsy of each patient's own tissue, expanded the cells, seeded them onto a biodegradable scaffold shaped like the patient's anatomical defect, and implanted the engineered organ. Follow-ups of up to eight years showed the organs had integrated with the patients' own tissue, were structurally indistinguishable from native tissue, and the patients reported normal function including sexual activity — with no long-term complications.</p> <blockquote>"This pilot study is the first to demonstrate that vaginal organs can be constructed in the lab and used successfully in humans," — Dr. Anthony Atala, Wake Forest, April 2014.</blockquote> <p>The same Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine group, also led by Atala, had previously implanted laboratory-grown bladders in seven patients (reported in <em>The Lancet</em> in 2006), and lab-grown urethras in five boys (2011). Together, these studies establish that <strong>tissue-engineered hollow organs, made from the patient's own cells, can survive in the human body for years and function normally</strong>. Scaling this to solid organs — kidney, liver, heart, lung — is dramatically harder because of the need for an internal vascular network, which is exactly the problem that 3D bioprinting is meant to solve (see Section 6).</p> <h2>5. Artificial Uteruses (Ectogenesis): the 2017 "Biobag" and the question of the "gestateling"</h2> <p>The original essay predicted that "artificial uteruses will become increasingly popular by 2050," citing improved embryo development, reduced hormonal changes, and the elimination of pregnancy and childbirth risks. The proof-of-concept already exists in animals, and the ethical conversation has already begun.</p> <p>In April 2017, a team at the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia (CHOP) led by Dr. Alan W. Flake published a study in <em>Nature Communications</em> titled <em>"An extra-uterine system to physiologically support the extreme premature fetus."</em> The so-called <strong>"Biobag"</strong> — a sterile polyethylene bag filled with synthetic amniotic fluid — supported eight extreme-premature fetal lambs (the developmental equivalent of a 23–24-week human fetus) for up to four weeks. The lambs continued to grow, their lungs and brains developed normally, and they were successfully weaned. Prior to this, premature infants born before 22 weeks had essentially no chance of survival.</p> <p>The technology is designed as a bridge for premature human infants, not as a full-gestation artificial womb — sometimes called <strong>partial ectogenesis</strong>. Full ectogenesis, in which an embryo is grown entirely outside a body from conception, is not close. But the legal scholar Elizabeth Chloe Romanis, writing in the <em>Journal of Medical Ethics</em> (2018), argued that AWT is conceptually different from ordinary neonatal intensive care and proposed a new word — <strong>"gestateling"</strong> — to describe a human being developing in an artificial womb, since calling it either a "fetus" or a "baby" smuggles in ethical assumptions. This is exactly the kind of conceptual frontier the original essay gestures at when it warns that "the focus should be on saving lives, as neglecting this responsibility would be inhumane."</p> <h2>6. 3D-Printed Hearts: the 2019 Tel Aviv milestone and what has happened since</h2> <p>The original article noted that "3D printing technology is being used to create components of the human heart, raising the possibility of 3D-printed organs being introduced into the body." The defining milestone came in April 2019, when researchers at <strong>Tel Aviv University</strong> led by Professor Tal Dvir reported the first ever 3D-printed heart using a patient's own cells. The heart, about the size of a rabbit's, contained vasculature, ventricles and chambers — and crucially, it was printed from "bioinks" made by reprogramming the patient's own abdominal fat cells into a mixture of cardiomyocytes and endothelial cells, plus a decellularised extracellular-matrix hydrogel that provides the structural cues.</p> <p>The 2019 paper, published in <em>Advanced Science</em> ("3D Printing of Personalized Thick and Perfusable Cardiac Patches and a Complete Miniature Heart"), has been cited more than 1,300 times. The same group subsequently published on perfusable cardiac patches that completely match the patient's immunological profile — meaning the body would not reject them — which could be used to repair scarred heart tissue after myocardial infarction. As Dvir said at the time: "This is the first time anyone anywhere has successfully engineered and printed an entire heart replete with cells, blood vessels, ventricles and chambers."</p> <p>The remaining challenges — significant — are vascularisation at the capillary scale (printing vessels smaller than ~100 microns), maturing the printed cardiomyocytes so they actually contract in synchrony, and powering the organ in culture before transplant. A fully printed, transplantable human heart is most likely still a decade or more away, but printed cardiac patches — a stepping stone toward longer lifespans — could enter clinical trials much sooner. Combined with anti-aging serums and reprogramming therapies, this is the route by which "true immortality," in the sense the original article suggests, would actually have to be engineered.</p> <h2>7. Nanorobots: the bacterial-inspired microbots and the DNA nanorobot breakthrough</h2> <p>Scientists have developed artificial nanorobots inspired by bacteria for the future of medicine. These micro-robots, only about four times thicker than a human hair, can be injected into the bloodstream with a needle and then controlled by an electromagnetic field — a class now often called "magnetotactic" or "biohybrid" microrobots. Currently, they are being used experimentally to treat eye diseases (where the small, transparent vitreous humour makes targeting easy), but the same architecture will be extended to other organs.</p> <p>More striking is the <strong>DNA nanorobot</strong> work cited in the original essay. In February 2018, a US-China team led by Hao Yan (Arizona State University) and Yuhuang Wang and colleagues at the National Center for Nanoscience and Technology (NCNST) in Beijing published a paper in <em>Nature Biotechnology</em> — "A DNA nanorobot functions as a cancer therapeutic in response to a molecular trigger in vivo" — that has since been cited more than 1,700 times. The team folded a single strand of DNA using DNA-origami techniques into a tubular robot about 90 × 60 nm. The tube carried a payload of <strong>thrombin</strong>, the blood-clotting enzyme, and was held shut by two DNA "fasteners" that acted as molecular locks. The locks only opened in the presence of <strong>nucleolin</strong>, a protein that sits on the surface of tumour blood-vessel cells but not on healthy vasculature.</p> <p>In mouse models of breast, melanoma, ovarian and lung cancer, intravenously injected DNA nanorobots homed in on tumour vasculature, opened, released thrombin, and triggered intravascular clots that choked off the tumour's blood supply. The result was rapid tumour tissue necrosis and, in some models, tumour shrinkage — without harming normal tissue. "The thrombin delivery DNA nanorobot constitutes a major advance in the application of DNA nanotechnology for cancer therapy," Yan said at the time. Three features make this genuinely important: it is the first time a DNA nanodevice has been shown to <em>act therapeutically in a living animal</em> in response to a molecular trigger, it targets the tumour's <em>vasculature</em> rather than the genetically unstable cancer cell (so resistance is less likely to evolve), and the DNA scaffold is biodegradable and cleared by the body.</p> <p>The same logic — DNA nanorobots that release a drug only when they meet a disease marker — is now being explored for chemotherapy delivery, gene silencing and antimicrobial therapy. Translation to humans is slow, because DNA-origami devices are fragile, and the immune system often clears them within hours; encapsulation strategies and PEGylation are now the engineering frontier.</p> <h2>8. Gene Editing: CRISPR's first commercial cure (Casgevy, December 2023)</h2> <p>No account of "medicine of the future" can omit the moment a CRISPR-Cas9 therapy became a marketed product. On 8 December 2023, the US FDA approved <strong>Casgevy (exagamglogene autotemcel)</strong> — co-developed by Vertex Pharmaceuticals and CRISPR Therapeutics — for sickle cell disease in patients aged 12 and older with recurring vaso-occlusive crises. It was the first ever approval of a CRISPR-based therapy anywhere in the world. The same product was approved for transfusion-dependent beta-thalassaemia in early 2024, and the FDA expanded the eligible age down to 2 years in 2025.</p> <p>The mechanism is elegant: a patient's own haematopoietic stem cells are extracted, edited <em>ex vivo</em> so that the <em>BCL11A</em> enhancer (which normally suppresses foetal haemoglobin) is disrupted, and the cells are returned. The patient's red blood cells then start producing high levels of foetal haemoglobin (HbF), which does not sickle, and the vaso-occlusive crises that define the disease essentially stop. Clinical-trial data showed that 93.5% of evaluable patients were free of severe vaso-occlusive crises for at least 12 months after treatment.</p> <p>The catch — and it is a big one for an "immortality for all" framing — is cost: Casgevy is priced at about $2.2 million per patient, plus the cost of conditioning chemotherapy and months of hospitalisation. This is the practical face of the original article's warning that "artificial intelligence can be used for military purposes, technological progress can be weaponised, and scientific research can cure diseases or result in worse viruses." Life-extension technologies that cost seven figures will not, by default, be shared.</p> <h2>9. Reprogramming and the Yamanaka Factors: the Altos Labs bet on turning back the epigenetic clock</h2> <p>The single most ambitious line of longevity research today is cellular reprogramming. In 2006, Shinya Yamanaka identified four transcription factors — <strong>Oct4, Sox2, Klf4, c-Myc</strong> — that can rewind a differentiated adult cell all the way back to an embryonic stem-cell state, work that won him the 2012 Nobel Prize. Fully reprogramming an adult cell is dangerous: it can produce tumours. But in 2016, Juan Carlos Izpisua Belmonte's lab at the Salk Institute showed that <em>partial</em> reprogramming — cycling the factors on for short bursts — could rejuvenate cells without erasing their identity, extending the median lifespan of mice with a premature-aging syndrome.</p> <p>In 2022, <strong>Altos Labs</strong> launched with about $3 billion in funding from Jeff Bezos, Yuri Milner and others, recruiting Belmonte, Yamanaka, and a long roster of senior aging biologists. A 2024 <em>Cell Reprogramming</em> paper from the field reported that "gene-therapy-mediated partial reprogramming extends lifespan and reverses age-related changes in aged mice." In September 2024, an Altos Labs study showed that targeting stressed and senescent cells with partial reprogramming produced large lifespan increases in male mice. The mechanism is essentially reversing the "epigenetic alterations" hallmark from Section 2. Human translation is at least a decade away — but this is the closest the field has come to a generic rejuvenation drug.</p> <h2>10. Senolytics: clearing out the zombie cells</h2> <p>Cellular senescence — cells that have stopped dividing but refuse to die, secreting inflammatory factors that damage their neighbours — is one of the clearest hallmarks of aging. <strong>Senolytics</strong> are drugs that selectively kill these "zombie cells." The best-studied combination is <strong>dasatinib plus quercetin</strong> (D+Q), championed by James Kirkland's group at the Mayo Clinic. In a 2018 paper in <em>Nature Medicine</em> (cited more than 2,700 times), Xu et al. showed that intermittent D+Q treatment of aged mice extended remaining lifespan by 36% and improved physical function. A 2024 follow-up in humans reported that the same combination reduced biological age by about 2.5 years, as measured by DNA-methylation "epigenetic clocks."</p> <p>This is the first class of intervention that targets a specific hallmark of aging with a measurable, drug-like effect in humans. Multiple randomised clinical trials of senolytics in age-related diseases (diabetic kidney disease, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, Alzheimer's) are now ongoing.</p> <h2>11. Artificial Intelligence in Medicine: AlphaFold and beyond</h2> <p>The original article names artificial intelligence as a cross-cutting technology. The clearest demonstration of AI's leverage on "medicine of the future" is DeepMind's <strong>AlphaFold</strong>. In 2020, AlphaFold 2 solved the 50-year-old protein-folding problem; in 2021, DeepMind and EMBL-EBI released a database of predicted structures for nearly every known protein — more than 200 million structures. AlphaFold 3, released in May 2024, extended the predictions to protein–drug, protein–RNA and protein–antibody interactions, becoming a workhorse for drug discovery. In 2024, DeepMind founder Demis Hassabis and AlphaFold lead John Jumper shared the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. AI accelerates the slowest, most expensive parts of drug discovery (target identification, lead optimisation, protein design) by orders of magnitude — and therefore accelerates everything else in this article.</p> <p>Beyond drug discovery, deep-learning models in radiology now match or exceed human specialists in tasks such as breast-cancer detection on mammograms, diabetic retinopathy screening and lung-cancer nodule identification — three areas where AI systems have received FDA clearance and are deployed clinically. In other words: parts of the AI revolution are no longer "the future." They are quietly running in the background of routine care.</p> <h2>12. The Other Face: ethics, weaponisation and the immortality gap</h2> <p>While the 21st century is a time of remarkable technological advancements, it is important to recognise the potential for both positive and negative outcomes. Artificial intelligence can be used for military purposes, technological progress can be weaponised, and scientific research can cure diseases or result in worse viruses. The COVID-19 pandemic showed how a single engineered pathogen could ground the global economy; gain-of-function debates are not academic. The same CRISPR tools that produce Casgevy can, in principle, be used to germline-edit embryos (as He Jiankui demonstrated in 2018 with the "CRISPR babies"), and the international moratorium that followed remains fragile.</p> <p>Even when the science is purely benevolent, the distribution question is brutal. Casgevy costs ~$2.2 million per patient. ErythroMer, if it reaches market, will likely be priced out of reach for low-income trauma systems that need it most. Lab-grown organs and reprogramming therapies, when they arrive, will probably follow the same pattern. Without deliberate policy choices, "immortality" becomes a product for the top 0.1% — exactly the dystopia the original essay warns against when it concludes that "neglecting this responsibility would be inhumane." The open ethical questions — when does a "gestateling" become a legal person? who owns the data from your reprogrammed cells? what is the moral status of a brain-dead cryonics patient? — are unresolved and under-debated.</p> <h2>13. Conclusion</h2> <p>The concept of immortality is a long-standing dream of mankind, and modern advances in areas such as rejuvenation, regenerative medicine, nanomedicine, digital immortality and cyborgization have led to the development of methods aimed at prolonging life. However, it is important to distinguish this concept of "immortality" from others that imply a longer lifespan or longevity based on metabolic rate or the longevity of similar organisms. Immortality is not only a cultural idea, but also a potential for future advances in medicine. Although achieving physical immortality may not be possible at the current stage of scientific development, scientists around the world continue to seek new methods and make discoveries to gradually move toward understanding the concept of immortality.</p> <p>The honest summary, having walked through the actual research: <em>curing</em> individual diseases — sickle cell, certain cancers, premature birth, vaginal aplasia — is already happening. <em>Reversing</em> aging in mammals, in specific tissues, has been demonstrated in the lab. <em>Stopping</em> death indefinitely has not, and may be impossible without radical alterations (continuous cellular refresh, consciousness uploading) that bring their own philosophical problems. The realistic horizon is a substantially longer <strong>healthspan</strong> — perhaps 90–100 years of good function rather than 70 — for people with access to the interventions, delivered within the lifetime of someone reading this article.</p> <h2>Bottom line: if you wanted to act on this today, what can we do?</h2> <p>The honest answer is that almost none of the technologies above are available to a private individual in 2025, and most of the ones that are have not been proven to extend lifespan in healthy humans. So the "act today" list is mostly unglamorous — but it is also the only list that actually moves the dial.</p> <ul> <li><strong>Nail the four evidence-based levers.</strong> Don't smoke, do 150 minutes of moderate aerobic exercise plus two sessions of resistance training per week, eat a Mediterranean-pattern diet, and sleep 7–9 hours. These four interventions together are estimated to add 10–12 years of life free of major chronic disease — more than any drug in this article currently delivers. The evidence base is decades deep.</li> <li><strong>Get the screening that does work.</strong> Age-appropriate colonoscopy, mammography, blood-pressure checks, HbA1c, lipid panel, and the new CT lung-cancer screening for smokers, plus HPV vaccination if eligible. The single biggest realistic lifespan gain available today is catching cancer and cardiovascular disease early.</li> <li><strong>Consider the off-label pharmacology — with a doctor.</strong> Metformin in non-diabetics, rapamycin at low intermittent doses, and SGLT2 inhibitors (e.g., empagliflozin) have emerging human data for healthspan, although none is yet FDA-approved for anti-aging. Talk to a physician who follows the TAME trial literature; do not self-prescribe.</li> <li><strong>Treat senescent cells as a research area, not a supplement.</strong> Dasatinib+quercetin trials are ongoing. The senolytic supplement market is mostly unproven. Fisetin and quercetin sold as supplements have not produced lifespan data in humans.</li> <li><strong>Bank your biological data while it's cheap.</strong> Whole-genome sequencing is now &lt;$300; liquid-biopsy cancer-screening tests (e.g., Galleri) are in clinical use. Personalised medicine will be built on your baseline genome — having it on file before you get sick is one of the few "future-proofing" moves that is genuinely available now.</li> <li><strong>Donate blood if you can.</strong> The artificial-blood pipeline is real, but donated blood still saves lives today, and blood shortages kill. While you wait for ErythroMer, the old system still needs you.</li> <li><strong>Pay attention to the policy fights.</strong> The single biggest determinant of whether "medicine of the future" extends everyone's life or only a wealthy few is whether governments negotiate the price of gene therapies, fund public biobanks, and regulate commercial longevity clinics. Vote, comment on consultation documents, and support open-science funding. The technology is moving; the social contract is the bottleneck.</li> </ul> <p>In short: the medicine of the future is being built right now, brick by brick, in laboratories you can name. Your job today is to stay alive, stay informed, and stay healthy enough to meet it.</p> <h2>Sources</h2> <ul> <li>Main article: Taubuzar Akerke Berikkyzy, <em>Medicine of the future: on the way to immortality</em>, Zenodo (28 Feb 2025), DOI: <a href="https://zenodo.org/records/14947399">10.5281/zenodo.14947399</a>. Direct file: <a href="https://zenodo.org/records/14947399/files/%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8C%D1%8F%20%D0%BE%20%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%20%D0%B1%D1%83%D0%B4%D1%83%D1%89%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%BE-%D0%BD%D0%B0%20%D0%BF%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B8%20%D0%BA%20%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8E.docx?download=1">статья о медицине будущего-на пути к бессмертию.docx</a>.</li> <li>Original article's literature list: <a href="https://moluch.ru/archive/183/47085/">moluch.ru</a>, <a href="https://lenta.ru/news/2022/01/04/immortal/">lenta.ru</a>, <a href="https://habr.com/ru/articles/590505/">habr.com</a>, <a href="https://theoryandpractice.ru/posts/19170-bessmertie-utopiya-ili-blizhayshee-budushchee">theoryandpractice.ru</a>, <a href="https://youtu.be/h8OtdFB2Aco">YouTube video 1</a>, <a href="https://youtu.be/fEIky0hZU3g">YouTube video 2</a>, <a href="https://www.rmj.ru/articles/istoriya_meditsiny/Stranicy_istorii_krioniki__Puty_k_bessmertiyu_ili_vera_v_chudesnoe_iscelenie/">rmj.ru — cryonics history</a>.</li> <li>Shetty T., Darbari A. <em>The evolution of artificial red blood cells and recent advances in state-of-the-art oxygen carrier technologies: a narrative review.</em> Blood Sci. 2025;7(4):e00249. <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12435547">PMC12435547</a>.</li> <li>NPR, "Scientists are developing artificial blood that could save…", 24 Jul 2025. <a href="https://www.npr.org/sections/shots-health-news/2025/07/24/nx-s1-5477632/artificial-blood-hemorrhage-emergency-medicine">npr.org</a>.</li> <li>KaloCyte / ErythroMer product page. <a href="https://www.meetlifesciences.com/media-hub/blog/kalocyte--a-biotech-developing-a-universal--first-of-its-kind-blood-substitute">meetlifesciences.com</a>.</li> <li>Raya-Rivera AM et al. <em>Tissue-engineered autologous vaginal organs in patients: a long-term follow-up.</em> Lancet. 2014;383(Suppl 1):S28. 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